This series is published in collaboration with the CORD Partnership.

How we can better support girls and young women in the youth justice system – Dr Orlaith Rice, Dr Colm Walsh and Dr Megan Kelly

In a new article published in Child & Youth Services, we explore the underlying needs that shape girls’ pathways into criminal justice. Synthesising recent research, we highlight how persistent abuse, trauma, gendered expectations and systemic failures contribute to justice involvement — and why current responses are often lacking. This review is part of our work with the Stable Lives Safer Streets Hub, a cross-border, policy-led research collaboration funded by the Higher Education Authority.

How did we do this?

We reviewed seven databases in 2024, finding 19 relevant, peer-reviewed, English-language articles published over the previous decade. We excluded studies looking at women generally, focusing on girls and young women. While most research was from the US, UK and Australia, these findings offer insights for Irish criminal justice, where similar systemic challenges and gendered dynamics exist. Our four themes highlight the need for gender-responsive, trauma-informed and intersectional youth justice policies and practices.

What did we find?

The first theme was of persistent abuse and nested harm. We found that girls in contact with youth justice systems are disproportionately affected by polyvictimisation, with sexual abuse, neglect and domestic violence prevalent. Victimisation often begins in early childhood, with abuse in the family home pushing girls into unsafe environments and increasing their vulnerability to exploitation.

Secondly, we found that girls’ responses to trauma, including substance use and aggressive behaviour, are often criminalised rather than understood as coping mechanisms. These behaviours reflect attempts to manage psychological distress stemming from abuse and neglect. Girls are more likely than boys to internalise trauma. Furthermore, girls’ trauma responses are shaped by gendered expectations and limited access to supportive resources.

Thirdly, societal norms and stereotypes shape girls’ pathways into offending, and influence how they are treated in justice systems. Girls who offend may face harsher treatment because they are sometimes labelled ‘doubly deviant’: transgressing both gender norms and the criminal law. Romantic relationships can be criminogenic for girls, often involving coercion or exploitation. Justice professionals may also perceive girls as more ‘difficult’ or ‘emotional’, leading to biased interventions.

Finally, systemic failures and limited effective interventions often contribute to girls’ justice involvement. We identified a lack of early intervention as a key gap. Girls in care are over-policed and under-protected. Youth justice staff report limited resources and training to support girls effectively, although positive relationships with staff and caregivers are critical to desistance and wellbeing.

Disentangling gender-specific needs

Most literature identifies gender-neutral or mixed-gender risk factors. While more research is needed to identify girls’ unique needs, the home environment appears to be more important for girls than boys. Those in residential care appear to be most at risk, and social work involvement appears to be more detrimental to girls’ trajectories than to boys’. Providing support for parents and families seems critical in reducing girls’ formal contact with criminal justice systems. This underscores the urgent need to move beyond gender-neutral approaches and embrace gender-responsive policies.

Girls’ pathways into offending are shaped by complex, intersecting factors. They require nuanced understanding and targeted support. Investing in tailored interventions will help justice systems to meet the needs of girls and young women, reduce offending and promote long-term wellbeing.

While none of the studies included in the review were from Ireland, one of us (Orlaith) supervised a master’s dissertation on the topic this year. Through interviews with youth justice workers, they found that 1) the resources available to youth justice workers in Ireland are tailored towards boys, 2) youth justice workers receive no formal training on gender/gender sensitivity, and 3) some feel that girls are more challenging to work with. This indicates that the rapid review and associated recommendations resonate with the current Irish context.  

How should we move forward?

1. Develop gender-responsive youth justice strategies: Create tailored interventions and resources for girls, informed by feminist pathways research.

2. Train youth justice professionals: Provide training on gender sensitivity, trauma-informed care and intersectionality.

3. Enhance early intervention: Enhance screening for trauma and mental health needs in schools and social services.

4. Strengthen cross-departmental and inter-agency collaboration: Collaborate across youth justice, health, education and social care to support girls’ wellbeing holistically.

5. Foreground intersectionality: Recognise the compounded vulnerabilities of girls from minority (ethnic, racial, sexual identity, religious, neurodivergent) backgrounds.

6. Evaluate gender-specific programmes: Conduct evaluations of existing interventions and provide funding to scale up successful interventions.

Supporting women and girls in the Probation Service – Niamh O’Carroll

As a Probation Officer working on the Dublin Homeless Team primarily with women, I welcome this research and the growing focus on women and girls within the criminal justice system. There remains a relative scarcity of Irish, evidence-based research capturing the specific pathways, needs, and experiences of young women and girls who come into contact with criminal justice services. This cohort often presents with complex, intersecting needs that require coordinated, inter-agency responses rather than isolated interventions.

The Probation Service already demonstrates a strong commitment to gender-responsive practice. The adoption of the Risk–Need–Responsivity (RNR) model explicitly includes responsivity principles, and a gender-specific training module has been introduced through Learning and Development for Probation Officers. The Probation Service’s WISE (Women’s Strength, Inclusion and Engagement) Working Group co-ordinates and responds to policy and practice developments with respect to probation work with women. This group are in the process of finalising a three-year action plan to guide such gender-responsive work. 

From a practitioner’s perspective, the distinction between gender-neutral and gender-responsive services remains significant. While individualisation and co-production are embedded within the Irish Probation Framework (IPF), there is scope to more explicitly apply a gendered lens to assessment, intervention planning, and reporting, particularly for women experiencing addiction, trauma, and homelessness. Further exploration of how gender responsivity can be operationalised consistently across practice would add value to existing frameworks.

I work predominantly with women aged 25–55 and discussed this research with colleagues across the Probation Service and in youth diversion management. Their reflections are incorporated below and broadly align with the themes raised in the research.

Parallels with practice: trauma, care experience, and criminal justice involvement

Consistent with the research, childhood adversity and trauma are prevalent among the women with whom we work. A significant proportion of women on my caseload report childhood abuse, disrupted attachments, and prolonged exposure to instability. These experiences often continue to shape emotional regulation, relationship patterns, and engagement with services into adulthood. Intergenerational patterns of addiction and criminal justice involvement are also frequently observed, particularly within contexts of poverty and social exclusion.

There is also a notable overlap between experiences of State care and later involvement in the adult criminal justice system. Among the small cohort of young women (aged 20–24) on my caseload, the majority had direct experience of care or significant social work involvement during childhood, and some are now engaged with child protection services in respect of their own children. While this observation is practice-based rather than statistical, it highlights the importance of further research into the association between care experience, homelessness, and later justice involvement. 

From my professional experience in both probation and child protection social work, there appears to be a recurring pattern whereby girls identified as ‘challenging’ or ‘high-need’ within care systems may later present as highly vulnerable and chaotic adults within criminal justice services. This points to the importance of understanding women’s pathways through a trauma-informed and intersectional lens, rather than interpreting behaviour solely through a risk or compliance framework.

Conclusion and pathways forward

The need for a holistic, adaptable, gender-responsive approach to working with women and girls in the criminal justice system is evident. While the Probation Service already employs multifaceted assessment and supervision practices, there is an opportunity to further deepen collective understanding of how trauma, poverty, addiction, homelessness, and gendered disadvantage intersect in women’s lives and shape engagement with supervision.

Importantly, much of the nuanced, relational work undertaken by probation staff and partner agencies remains under-documented. Research that captures frontline practice — including how trust is established, how progress is supported, and how change occurs over time — would help to evidence the effectiveness of work that is already taking place. This could also inform the continued development of gender-responsive interventions, including youth strategies for girls involved in the criminal justice system, and allow for meaningful evaluation of their impact. There is also scope to further consider holistic approaches to pre-sentence reporting and to continue building staff training and professional development in relation to women’s specific needs. Research examining the experiences of women in custody, and the consequences of imprisonment, would also be valuable in informing policy and practice. I welcome this opportunity to collaborate with researchers, contribute practitioner insight, and support the translation of research findings into practice that meets the needs of the vulnerable women and girls with whom we work every day. 

The Probation Service is actively supporting research in this area, including ongoing PhD projects and gender-specific programmes such as the Supervised Temporary Release (STR) pilot for women in Limerick Prison, and DAVINA responding to women who experience addiction and intimate partner violence. Continued collaboration between researchers and practitioners would help guarantee that emerging evidence remains grounded in operational reality.